Figure 2
From: The impact of helminth-induced immunity on infection with bacteria or viruses
Co-infection of helminths and viruses can result in different outcomes. Improved outcome: (Left) Enteric helminth infections can improve the outcome of respiratory viral infections via TH2 or type I IFN. Worsened outcome: (Right) Helminth infections induce type 2 immune response through activation of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) by tuft cells in the intestine. In the setting of some viral infections (e.g., West Nile virus, WNV), enteric helminth infections can lead to impairment of virus-specific CD8+ T cells responses through effects on commensal bacterial translocation due to compromised barrier functions. Fewer virus-specific CD8+ T cells results in a failure to control systemic infection.