Figure 1
From: The impact of helminth-induced immunity on infection with bacteria or viruses
Co-infection of helminths and bacteria can result in different outcomes. Improved outcome: Helminth infections can have a protective effect on bacterial infection by increasing the number of virtual memory CD8+ T (CD8+ TVM) cells. Helminths can improve pulmonary inflammation after bacterial pneumonia through a TH2-type immune response associated with eosinophil influx, which limits the development of TH1-type immune responses. Worsened outcome: Helminth infection and its ensuing TH2 immune response can impair host TH1 anti-bacterial response. Helminth infection also causes changes in the small intestinal metabolome from gut microbiota, which contribute to colonization of enteric bacteria.