Figure 1

NDV-induced autophagy promotes cytopathic and viral replication. DF-1 cells were transfected with Dsred-LC3-EGFP. Twenty-four hours post-transfection, cells were infected with NDV or mock-treated (negative control). A Confocal fluorescence microscopy shows the distribution of LC3 in DF-1 cells. B and C Pathological images of DF-1 cells that underwent starvation or were rapamycin, CQ, 3-MA, or mock-treated, followed by NDV infection at an MOI of 1 for 24 h. Bars, 200 μm (A) and 100 μm (B). D and E Transcription levels of the NDV M gene in NDV-infected DF-1 cells measured by qRT-PCR. Similar results were obtained from three independent experiments. Data were expressed as mean ± SD. ^*P ≤ 0.05; ^**P ≤ 0.01; ^***P ≤ 0.001. NDV: Newcastle disease virus, CQ: chloroquine, 3-MA: 3-Methyladenine,  MOI: Multiplicity of infection.